Early Modernization Efforts: Japan and the Ottoman Empire
Both Japan and the Ottoman Empire recognized their lagging development in the 18th century and initiated modernization efforts. Both societies intended to pursue modernization, particularly after realizing their shortcomings in the military sphere. Thus, the army emerged as both a goal and a source of modernization.
Divergent Paths: 1853 and Foreign Debt
The year 1853 marks an interesting contrast in the modernization journeys of both societies. Japan, having resisted opening its ports to trade, was forcibly opened by American warships commanded by Commodore Matthew Perry. The Japanese took this as a matter of honor, accelerating their modernization and reducing their dependence on external forces. However, in the same year, the Ottoman Empire, which allied with the West for the Crimean War, began to become more dependent externally. While it believed it was receiving support from the West, it was instead dragged into a quagmire of foreign debt. As the Ottoman Empire borrowed further into debt, the Japanese resisted foreign dependence. This foreign debt crisis silenced the Ottoman Empire against the West, weakened its authority, and caused it to fall behind in modernization.
Religious Obstacles and Societal Homogeneity
Both nations rejected Western religion, aspiring only to adopt its technology. Japan initially didn’t perceive the danger, but it soon realized that the Christianization of its population led to foreign intervention. It expelled Christian missionaries, banned Christianity, and executed those who resisted. The Ottoman Empire, however, had long-standing Christian and non-Muslim minorities, with Christian populations even dominating many provinces. The Ottoman Empire’s ancient communities became tools for the very threat Japan perceived, hindering modernization. The Ottoman Empire’s diverse communities and non-homogeneous society made it susceptible to foreign influence and contributed to its stagnation.
Morality Versus Technology in Modernization
While the Ottoman Empire saw the import of Western morality, its technological adaptation remained stunted. In Japan, technology was successfully integrated, while existing moral values were preserved. Both societies possessed a conservative structure. Japanese culture, partly due to its geographical isolation, managed to remain pure and protective. The Ottoman Empire, situated between East and West, maintained its conservative structure in terms of beliefs, but attitudes and behaviors were compelled to change. The state of both societies in the 20th century indicates that the Japanese were more successful in preserving their moral fabric.
The Effectiveness of Foreign Expertise
Both societies invited foreign experts, aiming to patronize those with technical capabilities. However, the Japanese were significantly more successful than the Ottomans. The Ottoman Empire’s historical image in the West and foreigners’ apprehension toward Islam hindered the acquisition of expertise. The few experts who did arrive approached the Ottoman Empire with an Orientalist perspective, and literati who came for adventure often merely provided material for Europe.
Student Exchanges and Strategic Differences
The Ottoman Empire sent students to the West earlier and in greater numbers than Japan, yet it failed to achieve the desired outcomes. The Japanese understood that Western institutions simultaneously required Western rules, prompting them to independently undertake social and political reforms. In the Ottoman Empire, this process occurred under duress, and adaptation, unlike in Japan, was not achieved. For example, the Japanese, recognizing the need for markets for industrial commodities and surplus production, invaded China. Unlike the Japanese, who ruthlessly exploited China to grow their industry, the Ottoman Empire had, since ancient times, never viewed any foreign land merely as a market or source of commodities. Nevertheless, the Japanese, who were able to expand their industry through exploitation, managed to defeat Russia, a Western power, in war, while the Ottomans suffered defeat.
Private Enterprise and the Legacy of Modernization
One of the fundamental differences between Japanese modernization and that of other Eastern societies was the encouragement of private enterprise. The Japanese quickly adapted to capitalist principles, liberalizing markets that served as the driving force of modernization. In the Ottoman Empire, however, religious laws (sharia) prevented interventions that would disturb social justice; tradition, custom, and existing laws hindered such changes. The all-encompassing nature of Islam, which governed the daily life of individuals and supervised all activities, already obstructed changes in lifestyle. Consequently, Japan, having learned to play by Western rules, remained independent, while the Ottoman, Afghan, Chinese, and Iranian societies became semi-colonies.
Geographical Isolation and Resistance to Imperialism
Japan’s geographical isolation proved maximally beneficial to its modernization. The Ottoman Empire, like a bridge, was compelled to sway between East and West. It could neither detach itself from the East nor fully embrace the West. Moreover, Japan, as an island nation, was able to preserve its values more effectively compared to the Ottoman Empire, which was threatened from all sides. Their recent emergence from a period of internal civil war known as Sengoku (15th and 16th centuries) also contributed to their ability to preserve their values. During these interstate wars, they achieved a position where they could resist the West in terms of military accumulation and army equipment. Their witnessing of Britain’s exploitation of China in their region also fostered a tendency to resist imperialism. The Japanese developed a resistance movement against the American intervention and coercion led by Perry, using it as a motivation for modernization. It can be argued that the Meiji Restoration occurred based on this premise.
Conclusion: A Tale of Two Modernizations
In conclusion, the Ottoman Empire and Japan are suitable for comparison as two Eastern countries that attempted industrialization early on. While experiments were conducted in the Ottoman Empire to a similar extent as in Japan, the size of its society and its lifestyle meant that modernization efforts proved insufficient, leading to a significant divergence in modernity between the two societies.
